PMC

Summary of pathways linking prefrontal cortex with structures associated with perception and expression of emotions. Line thickness represents the density of projections. Direct and indirect sensory input to the orbitofrontal cortex: The orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala receive projections from every sensory modality through the cortex (pathways so, s), and are robustly linked with each other, providing the structural basis for direct (so), and indirect (s and s') sensory input to the orbitofrontal cortex. The orbitofrontal cortex disinhibits hypothalamic autonomic centers: Orbitofrontal axons terminate heavily in the intercalated masses of the amygdala (IM, pathway a), which project to the central nucleus (a'), which projects to hypothalamic autonomic centers (pathway b). Activation of pathways (a, a') leads to disinhibition of hypothalamic autonomic centers, which innervate brainstem and spinal autonomic centers (pathways c', o'). Direct and indirect pathways from medial prefrontal areas to hypothalamic autonomic centers: The direct pathway courses from medial prefrontal cortex to hypothalamic autonomic centers (c), forming asymmetric (and presumed excitatory) synapses in the lateral and posterior hypothalamic areas. The indirect pathway courses from medial prefrontal cortices to the parvicellular sector of the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLpc, pathway d), which projects to hypothalamic autonomic centers (d'), and is presumed to be excitatory. Activation of the direct or indirect pathways ultimately activates brainstem and spinal autonomic nuclei (pathways c, c', o'), which innervate peripheral organs. Red, inhibitory pathways; green, excitatory pathways.

Figure 1. Timing of hypothalamic and adipose tissue development in humans and rodents: In humans and primates, synaptogenesis of hypothalamic centers controlling body adiposity and peripheral adipose tissue development occur during the second trimester of pregnancy. Conversely, in mice, developmental plasticity of hypothalamic circuits controlling adiposity and peripheral adipose tissue development occur during the first two weeks of neonatal life. Thus, with regard to programming the hypothalamic and peripheral control adipose tissue, the mouse’s first week of neonatal life is relevant to human fetal development during the second trimester of pregnancy.

Distribution of 169 childhood-onset craniopharyngioma (CP) patients recruited in KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2007 and neurosurgically treated at 63 neurosurgical institutions with different patient load per 7 years recruitment period in KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2007. S, small-sized centers (n = 34): one CP patient per 7 years; M, middle-sized centers (n = 21): 2–5 CP patients per 7 years; and L, large-sized centers (n = 8): >5 CP patients per 7 years recruitment period. Different degrees of primary presurgical involvement of anterior or anterior plus posterior hypothalamic areas are shown in table lines. Different degrees of surgical hypothalamic lesions (HL) graded as previously described are shown in table columns (, ).

Effect of ghrelin on the BOLD responses was represented by the blue columns after vehicle pretreatment, and red columns after rimonabant pretreatment. Statistically significant differences were found in the nucleus accumbens and septum. ANOVA and Fisher post hoc test. *: p<0.05. N = 5–7.